Skin is the largest organ of the body, covering and protecting the entire surface of the body. The total surface area of skin is around 3000 sq inches or roughly around 19,355 sq cm depending on age, height, and body size. The skin, along with its derivatives, nails, hair, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands forms the integumentary system. Besides providing protection to the body the skin has a host of other functions to be performed like regulat­ing body temperature, immune protection, sensations of touch, heat, cold, and pain through the sensory nerve endings, communicating with external openings of numerous other body systems like digestive system, urogenital system, and respiratory system via mucous mem­branes and also one of the most important function of acting as a storage house of energy by collection of adipose tis­sue, which is the principal fat depot in the body. It is the first line of defense of our body against any organism. So, lets now study the physiology and anatomy of skin in detail.

 

1.      The study of skin and its appendages (hairs and nails) is called dermatology.

2.      A dermatologist is a person who specializes in the skin diseases and disorders and their treatments.

3.      The skin is the largest organ of the body, with a total surface area of 19,355 sq cm or 3000 sq inches.

4.      The color of the skin varies, depending upon the amount of pigment melanin produced by melanocytes within the epidermis.

5.      About 80 per cent of the body's hair follicles are in the scalp.

6.      Besides forming a covering of the body, the skin has a host lot of functions.

 

The skin is primarily composed of three layers. The skin, which appears to be so thin, is still itself divided into epider­mis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer or hy­podermis. Please refer to the figure below to understand all the three layers. Each layer has it own function and own importance in maintaining the integrity of skin and thereby the whole body structure. So lets, study each part in detail.

 

1. Epidermis: Epidermis is the topmost layer or rather the visible part of the skin that is composed of stratified squamous epithelial cells. This layer is com­posed of five layers of cel1s, which are arranged in two zones; the superficial horny layer and a germinal layer beneath it. The horny layer is again made up of three layers of cells. These are stratum corneum, which is the superficial layer. It has thin, flat, dead cells filled with keratin, which are constantly being cast off. Keratin is a very important constituent as it is a type of insoluble fibrous protein that helps to protect the body. This layer helps in protection against heat, chemicals, light, and microorganisms. Below this layer is stra­tum lucidum. This layer contains flat cells with no distinct outline and no nuclei. These cells contain eleidin, which is a retractile and weakly staining keratin present in the cells of the stratum lucidum of the palmar and plantar epidermis, which is a prekeratinous substance. Below this layer is stratum granulosum. It is a layer of well-defined flat cells, which have their own nucleus and also granules and con­tains a substance called keratohyalin, which later becomes keratin. The next layer of the epidermis is stratum spinosum, which is the first and largest layer of the germinal zone of epidermis. It is made up of prickle cells having prickle-like appearance. The deepest layer of epidermis is stratum basale also known as stratum germinativum. It is a single layer of cuboidal and columnar cells from which new epidermal cells are con­stantly being produced, which later become cells of more superficial layers. These cells divide continuously by mitosis and either push older cells closer to the surface or re­place them.

 

2. Dermis: The next layer below the epidermis of the skin is called the dermis, which is primarily made up of elastic and fibrous connective tis­sue. This layer is arranged in small papillae, which contain loops of capillary blood vessels. This layer also contains nerve endings of sensory nerves, coiled tubes of sweat glands in deep parts of dermis and sebaceous glands, which produce an oily secretion called as sebum. Ducts from sweat glands pass through dermis and epidermis as spiral ca­nals and open on the skin as minute depressions, which are called pores.

 

The sweat glands found on the skin are of two types; eccrine and apocrine. Eccrine sweat glands, which are found everywhere in the body, secrete a watery fluid to regulate the body tempera­ture. Apocrine sweat glands are present in certain parts of the body and secrete a milky sweat caused by breakdown of cells by bac­teria. Both types of glands perform an important function of excretion for the body.

 

3. Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis): The third layer below the dermis is the subcutaneous layer. This layer contains adipose tissue, which is the storage depot for fats. Also called hypodermis, this layer helps in regula­tion of body temperature and provides cushioning to the skin. All the underlying muscles and structures are below the hypodermis.

 

Appendages of the skin are nails, hair, sebaceous glands and sweat glands.

 

Hairs and nails are modified epidermal cells com­posed of keratin. Hairs grow from a cavity called hair follicle, which is located in the der­mis as seen in the figure. Hair follicle is lined with epidermal cells.

 

At the base of the hair follicle is an en­larged hair bulb. At the bottom of it is the pa­pilla, which contains connective tissues and blood vessels to provide nourishment to the hair. It is from these cells in this region that the hair grows. The hair projects above the body surface as hair shaft. The portion that penetrates in the dermis (in the hair fol­licle) is called the root. Associated with the hair follicles are minute specialized smooth involuntary muscles called arrector pilus, which contract during stress and raise the hair and pull it in an upright position. Also sebaceous glands are connected to the hair follicles, which secrete a fatty or oily sub­stance called sebum. It keeps the skin soft, smooth and gives a glossy feeling to the hair. Hairs grow in two phases; anagen or growing phase and telogen or resting phase.

 

Nails are also composed of keratin. They are present on the distal ends of fingers and toes. The nail lies on the nailbed in which dermis is arranged in longitudinal ridges. The nailbed is supplied with nerve endings and blood vessels. Nail grows from root of the nail, which lies in the groove of the skin called the nail grooves. Nail is thinnest in this region. The body of a nail is the uncov­ered part, which is firmly attached to the nailbed. Its distal end is free and called free bor­der.

 

Sweat secretes from the sweat glands. It is es­sentially a saline solution comprising about one-third of the concentration of plasma. Its secretion is under the control of the sympathetic nervous system. Body tem­perature can be lowered by means of sweat glands. Sweating varies from 0 to 2000 ml per day, depending upon requirements of body temperature regulation.

 

During physical assessment of a patient, it is imperative for the examining physician to take note of the skin condition. The physician has to look for skin texture, moistness or dry­ness, tenderness, skin turgor, and most importantly temperature. The physician also evaluates the skin color for any abnormality like cyanosis, erythema, jaundice, etc., and sees the pigmentation pattern of the skin. The examiner also inspects the skin for any hemorrhagic lesions like petechiae, pur­pura, and ecchymosis, or structural changes on the skin like macule, vesicles, bullae, wheals, pustules, papules, plaque, nodules, scales, excoriations, fissures, scars, ulcers, or lichenifications. A variety of skin conditions and diseases can be properly diagnosed by a proper assessment of skin condition. Not only that, even systemic condition can be reflected many times to the skin surface, like jaundice and cystic fibrosis, in which skin is the primary indicator of the underlying disease.

Albinism is a genetic and/or hereditary pig­ment disorder in which melanocytes, cells that produce chemical called melanin and that are responsible for giving color to the skin, are present but they do not produce melanin. Characteristics of people with this disorder are white hair, pale, very light skin and pink eyes. Because of improper melanin formation, such individuals are very susceptible to skin cancers as skin and melanic act as an ultraviolet light filter for the body. Though medical science has advanced, but for albinism there is no medical treatment available still.

Basal cell carcinoma is the most prevalent type of skin malignancy. It arises from the malignancy of the basal cell layer of the lowest part of epidermis. Exces­sive exposure to sun's ultraviolet rays is the most common cause of basal cell carcinoma. It may appear as a skin sore or firm lump that does not heal. Basal cell carcinoma progress slowly and hence, is readily cur­able if detected early. Squamous cell carci­noma originates in the cells that form the skin's outer surface. It may appear as a scaly or crusty patch that may develop most often on the rim of the ear, mouth, or scalp. Squamous cell carcinoma can sometimes also in­vade nearby organs.

People who are bedridden, confined to the wheelchair, lacking sensation because of paralysis, and who cannot or do not change their posi­tions every few hours, their blood flow is reduced consequent to prolonged pressure. This results in cell death, skin thickening, consequently leading to blis­ters and open sores and, finally to skin ulceration called bedsores or pressure sores. These ulcers occur mostly at places where the bone is close to the skin, such as heels, ankle, hip, shoulder, elbow, and base of the spine. Advance bedsores may require debridement to remove dead tissue, whereas in early stages, they can be treated with spe­cial gels or antibiotics.

Eczema is an inflammatory skin disease with lesions that may be erythematous, scaly, blis­tering, thickened, crusty, oozing, or itchy. These symptoms may exist in combination or singly. Anti-inflammatories are often pre­scribed in their treatment. Topical medications may include coal tar and a cortisone cream, hydrocortisone. If bacterial infection has set in as a result of scratching, then an­tibiotics may be prescribed.

Impetigo is a contagious skin infection caused by either staphylococcal or strepto­coccal bacteria, characterized by many small, isolated, itchy blisters, some of which may contain pus. When these blisters break, a characteristic yellow crust forms. Diagnosis can be made by inspecting the lesions and confirmed by scraping off a sample of cells from the sores for laboratory exam. Impetigo is most common among in infants and children. This infection in early stages affects only a small area and hence, can be treated with topical antibiotic ointments, such as mupirocin (Bactroban). In certain cases, oral antibiotics like penicillin and cephalosporinsmay be prescribed.

Kaposi’s sarcoma is a cancer in which malignant cells appear as red and purple patches under the skin or mucous membranes. The lesions of Kaposi’s sarcoma originate mostly on the leg and then may spread to lungs, liver, intestinal tract, or lymph nodes. The skin le­sions themselves are painful. They can be accompanied by swelling, edema, and low-grade fever.

 

Melanoma is most lethal form of cancerous growth. It develops when the melanocytes (pigment cells) undergo malignant changes. Melanoma can frequently me­tastasize to other organs such as liver, brain, lungs, and other internal organs. Sunlight exposure is considered to be a leading con­tributing factor of this disease. Surgery is the most effective treatment for this disease. Chemotherapy and radiation therapy are used in addition to surgery to treat mela­noma.

Miliaria, also known as heat rash or prickly heat, is a skin condition characterized by clusters of tiny blisters filled with perspira­tion, mostly on the armpits and groin, sometimes also on chest, waist, and back. These blisters are formed when pores become blocked and sweat cannot be released from them. The heat rash is itchy. Remedies that alleviate itching and cool the skin work well for miliaria.

Pruritus is an itching sensation in the skin. It can be caused by a number of local factors ranging from insect bites, allergic reaction, dry skin, eczema to infectious diseases, or systemic problems.

Psoriasis is a chronic skin disorder in which patches of skin become red and covered with dry silvery scales. The skin makes new cells so fast with psoriasis that they form silvery scales. The psoriatic patches form initially on the scalp, behind the ears, on the back of neck, on the elbows and knees, and near the nails of fingers and toes. The cause of psoriasis is unknown. In some cases, psoriasis is characterized by blisters usually on palms, and soles and is called pustular psoriasis.

 

Any vascular bleeding disorder characterized by hemorrhage in the tissue, particularly be­neath skin tissue and showing up as bruises, ranging from tiny reddish or purplish spots called petechia to large hemorrhagic patches called ecchymosis is called pur­pura. Most types of vascular bleedings or purpuras are due to temporary change in the blood composition of platelets or rupturing of blood vessel walls because of deterioration of tissue making the vessel wall. Several types of purpura are purpura simplex (mostly hereditary), senile purpura (due to aging), aller­gic purpura (due to allergy), and idiopathic cytopenic purpura. Acute idiopathic cytopenic purpura affects children and follows a viral infection that has a reduced number of plate­lets, which are instrumental in blood clotting. Chronic idiopathic thrombocytic purpura af­fects mostly women in the age group 20-40 and is an autoimmune disorder in which plate­lets are destroyed.

Scabies is a contagious, intensely itchy and highly infectious parasitic skin disease caused by itch mite, Sarcoptes scabiei. The mite is most often transferred by direct skin contact, especially during sexual activity, and less of­ten by indirect contact like sharing clothing or a towel. The female mite looks for places in skin, which are thickest, especially at the palms and soles to reproduce. It burrows a tunnel under the skin in which she deposits her eggs. Larvae hatch within 2 to 4 days. The charac­teristic itchy rash is caused perhaps due to hy­persensitivity to eggs, or waste products or mites and larvae. Potent parasite-killer medi­cations like gamma benzene hexachloride and lindane are used to destroy mites and their eggs. However, nowadays, milder but equally effective drugs such as permethrin are used.

 

Lesions are the pathological conditions re­sulting from a wound or injury. Primarily, the skin lesions can be classified into the following

 

·        Macule: A circumscribed lesion of any size, which is flat and discolored and which is nonpalpable.

·        Papule: A small, solid, raised skin lesion less than 1 cm in size.

·        Nodule: Palpable raised skin lesion, 1-2 cm in diameter that is larger than pap­ule

·        Vesicle: Elevated skin lesion that con­tains fluid, less than 0.5 cm.

·        Bulla: Elevated lesion containing fluid greater than 0.5 cm; blisters containing clear fluid. Pustule: Elevated skin lesion contain­ing pus; abscess.

·        Tumor: Elevated skin lesion greater than 2 cm in diameter.

·        Scale: Excessive dry exfoliation from the upper layer of skin.

·        Wheal: A raised, red lesion, usually ac­companied by itching.

·        Fissure: Small break in epidermis, arack-like sore exposing the dermis.

·        Ulcer: Lesion caused on the surface of the skin or mucosa caused by superficial loss of tissues accompanied by in­flammation.

Tinea is any fungal skin infection, caused by dermatophytes. The name of the fungus indicates the body part it affects. The fungi can infect the scalp (Tinea calpitis), the beard (Tinea barbae), the skin (Tinea corporis), the groin area (Tinea cruris), the feet (Tinea pedis a.k.a. athlete foot), or fingernails or toenails (Tinea unguium). Tinea infections can be identified by the distinctive appear­ance of their lesions. As they most often produce round lesions, hence, the name ring­worm. Most Tinea infections can be treated with antifungal drugs like clotrimazole, nystatin, and miconazole.

 

Urticaria (Hives)  

Urticaria is an allergic skin disorder, characterized raised pink or pale red lesions with a flat top. Hives are warm and itchy to touch and normally range in size from one-fourth of inch to 1-1/2 inch. Hives are most often caused by food allergies. They can also de­velop in response to certain drugs, such as penicillin, aspirin, etc; or in response to con­tact with insect bites, cats, exposure to de­tergents or dry cleaning chemicals on clothes. Skin tests performed by an allergist can help in identifying the substance responsible for hives. Hives usually disappear on their own within one to seven days. To alleviate the symptoms, itching, antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine, hydroxyzine, and cyproheptadineare prescribed. In severe cases, corticoster­oids, such as prednisonemay be prescribed.

 

Vitiligo is a pigment disorder characterized by area of hypopigmentation, which develop when melanocytes are damaged. Hypopigmentation may range from small patches to large sections that cover most of the body. Combination of drug and light therapy is used, in which a drug is ad­ministered and followed by exposure to the ultraviolet light. This drug is activated by light and stimulates re-pigmentation by in­creasing the availability of melanocytes at skin surface. If vitiligo consists of only small, scattered patches, drugs to stimulate pig­mentation may be applied directly to the af­fected skin and areas then exposed to the sunlight. In those with vitiligo covering more than half the body, depigmentation is done by bleaching the rest of the skin.

Warts are epidermal growths caused by strains of HPV (human papilloma virus), which infect the epithelial cells of skin and then prompt them to multiply. The virus can spread abnormally and very fast from one person to another by direct contact. Veruccae vulgaris, the most prevalent form, develops on fingers, elbows, face and knees. Other types of warts are filiform, flat, pedun­culated, periungual, plantar, venereal, and laryngeal. Majority of the warts are benign. Warts can be quickly removed by burning them with electrocautery, laser surgery, cryosurgery, but about one-third may recur.

Sometimes, a small piece of tissue is excised through a surgical process for some microscopic examination. This excision is called bi­opsy and such an act is performed with the help of a needle or syringe. The general purpose of getting a biopsy is to arrive at a diagnosis. The different kinds of biopsies per­formed are aspiration or needle biopsy, punch biopsy, shave biopsy, endoscopic biopsy, and chorionic villus biopsy. In aspiration or needle biopsy, the specimen is aspirated through a needle or trocar that penetrates the skin, the outer surface of the organ, or the underlying tissue to be examined. In punch biopsy, the specimen removed is in the form of a cylinder. Shave biopsy is a technique performed with surgical or razor blades, chiefly for the lesions of the dermis or epidermis.

 

Cryosurgery is a kind of operation performed using freezing temperature. This temperature is achieved by employing liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide. This freezing temperature is used either as an agent or in an instru­ment to destroy tissues.

 

Dermabrasion is a technique to wipe out the acne scars (cicatrix) or the pits (small depres­sions in the skin). The physicians use sand­paper, rotating wire brushes, or other abrasive materials to efface these scars.

 

Scarring, burning, or cutting the skin by means of heat, cold, electric current, ultra­sound, or caustic chemicals is called cauterization. During electrocauterization, a high-voltage current is passed through the tissues or the metal device that has been electrically heated.

 

Lesions of the skin, sometimes of the mu­cous membranes, are destroyed and blood vessels sealed off by the monopolar high-fre­quency electric current. This process is known as electrodesiccation.

 

In this process, a thin slice of tissue is excised from a frozen specimen and sent for microscopic examination. This procedure is used for rapid diagnosis of malignancy, while the patient awaits surgery. This generally helps in determining the approach towards the surgery, i.e. conservative or radical.

 

Incision and drainage is a simple procedure to drain the fluids from a wound or cavity, An incision is made to allow the free flow or with­drawal of fluids from the wound or cavity.

 

A small, circumscribed, flat area, not more than 1 cm in diameter, differing in color or structure from the surrounding surface, is called a patch. Patch test is done to ensure the sensitivity of the skin. A small piece of paper or tape is soaked with a non-irritating diluted test fluid and applied on the skin of upper back or upper outer arm and covered. After 48 hours, the covered area is compared with the uncovered area. The presence of erythema and vesicles indicate the allergy towards that substance.

 

Scratch test is one of the various skin tests performed to diagnose a pathology of the skin. In scratch test, an antigen is applied through a scratch in the skin.

 

Arnault Tzanck was a Russian dermatologist (1886- I 954). Tzanck smear is the examina­tion of fluid from the bullous lesions of the altered epithelial cells, rounded and devoid of intercellular attachments, also known as Tzanck cells. These cells are basophilic in nature, with spherical nucleus and enlarged prominent nucleoli. They are characteristic of lesions due to varicella, herpes, and pem­phigus vulgaris.

 

Now, lets take a look at the pharmacopoeia of skin.

 

These drugs control the inflammatory eruptions composed of cysts, papules, and comedos, predominantly on the face, upper back, and chest. The condition occurs in a majority of people during pu­berty and adolescence. Examples: benzoyl peroxide, tretinoin, topical erythromycin, and meclocycline  

Psoriasis refers to the circumscribed discrete, silvery-scaled, confluent reddish lesions that primarily occur on knees, scalp, elbow, and trunk. There are many drugs for treatment of psoriasis like Calcipotriene, coal tar, and etretinate.

These drugs are effective for treatment of seborrheic dermatitis manifested by erythematous and scaly lesions. Examples: sele­nium sulfide, chloroxine, coal tar, and sulfur and sulfacetamide.

Emollients are agents used to soothe and hydrate the skin. After application to the skin, emollients prevent evaporation of water by forming a thin greasy layer on the skin surface. Emollients improve the dry­ness of skin but are not to be used on exudative lesions (oils like coconut, ground­nut, etc.). Keratolytics are agents applied to soften the epidermic cells and desqua­mate them, for example, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, propylene glycol, zinc oxide, and dimethicone.

Topical anti-infectives are used for treatment of bacterial infections of skin, impetigo, eczema, folliculitis, and leg ulcers. They are also used for abrasions, cuts, and as preoperative antiseptics. Example: mupirocin, tetracycline, aminoglycoside, sulfonamides, nitrofurazone, and acy­clovir. The antiseptics used are chloroxylenol, cetrimide, and povidone-iodine.

These agents kill the fungus selectively. These antifungals include scabicides, which kill scabiei that invade the epidermis. Ex­ample: Malathion, lindane, benzyl benzoate. Some other antifungal are miconazole, which has a broad spectrum of antifungal activity and is used for fungal and eczematous infec­tions of tinea, candidiasis of skin and nails and also for eczema with bacterial infection; clotrimazole which is used for Tinea infections, fungal nappy rash, candida vulvitis, candida balanitis, paronychia, and athlete foot; and ­vulvovaginal candidiasis; and ketoconazole for fungal infections of the skin.

Topical steroids are used to treat various dermatological disorders like contact derma­titis, psoriasis, keloid scars, seborrheic der­matitis, eczema, and vulval pruritus. Example: beclomethasone dipropionate, triamci­nolone acetate, hydrocortisone, methyl prednisolone acetate, and dexamethasone sodium phosphate.

1.                  Abrasion: scraping away or excoriation of the superficial layer of the skin or mucous membrane

2.                  Abscess: a pus-filled cavity caused by tissue destruction and associated with swelling

3.                  Acne: papular follicular eruptions characterized by pus and inflamma­tion

4.                  Adenopathy: disease of the glands (lymph nodes)

5.                  Adipose: of or related to fat

6.                  Allograft: a graft between the individu­als of the same species

7.                  Alopecia: falling hair, loss of hair

8.                  Anesthetics: agents which suppress the ability to feel pain or other sensations

9.                  Antibacterial: agents acting against the growth of bacteria

10.              Antifungal: agents acting against fun­gus (syn antimycotic)

11.              Anti-inflammatory: agents to reduce inflammation

12.              Antiseptics: agents that prevent growth of infective agents (syn. Dis­infectives)

13.              Areola: any small area (also used for the areola of nipple)

14.              Atopic: related to hypersensitivity to environmental allergens

15.              Benign: mild, non-malignant

16.              Biopsy: process of taking out a speci­men of tissue for diagnostic purposes

17.              Blemish: unaesthetic circumscribed alteration of the skin

18.              Bulla: a large bubble-like blister

19.              Carbuncle: skin infections of the sub­cutaneous tissue, accompanied by fever

20.              Cellulitis: inflammation of the cellular tissues

21.              Chloasma: skin infections character­ized by irregular brown patches

22.              Cicatrix: scar

23.              Comedo: dilated hair follicle filled with bacteria and sebum

24.              Contusion: injury in which skin does not break

25.              Corium: dermis

26.              Crust: a hard outer layer or covering (sometimes referred to the one formed by pus or blood)

27.              Cyst: a bladder or sac containing some sort of fluid

28.              Debridement: the process of taking out the dead tissues from a wound site

29.              Dermabrasion: operation performed to remove the acne scars

30.              Dermatitis: skin inflammation

31.              Dermatologist: specialist in the study of skin and its diseases

32.              Dermatology: specialty, dealing with skin

33.              Dermatomycosis: fungus infection of the skin

34.              Dermatophytosis: skin abnormality in which vesicles, papules, and/or fis­sures are caused by dermatophytes

35.              Dermatoplasty: surgical repair of the skin

36.              Dermatosis: abnormalities of the skin

37.              Dermatotherapy: treatment of skin pa­thology

38.              Dermis: corium, skin

39.              Desquamation: shedding or peeling of the outer layer or surface

40.              Ecchymosis: a purple spot or patch caused by passing of the blood into the skin

41.              Eczema: inflammatory condition of the skin characterized by erythema­tous edematous papular vesicles of the skin

42.              Electrodesiccation: destroying the le­sions or pathological skin tissues by applying a high frequency electric cur­rent

43.              Epidermis: outer layer of the skin

44.              Eruption: breaking out of the lesions

45.              Erythema: redness of the skin

46.              Eschar: a crust or scar formed after the burn or cauterization of the skin tis­sues

47.              Exanthem: skin eruptions, mostly as a result of viral disease

48.              Excoriation: scraping or peeling of the pathological tissues from the skin

49.              Extravasation: passing out of blood or lymph, into the tissues

50.              Fissure: a narrow opening, cleft, or break in the body parts or between the tissues

51.              Flaking: eruption of small, thin, flat­tened pieces of layer

52.              Frostbite: a condition caused by ex­treme cold or frost in which tissues are killed

53.              Fulguration: the act or process of de­stroying tissues or lesions by applying electric current. Syn. Electrodesiccation

54.              Glandular: relating to a gland

55.              Graft: tissues used for transplantation

56.              Hair follicle: the cavity from which the hair shaft develops

57.              Hair root: part of the hair embedded in the hair follicle

58.              Hair shaft: non-growing portion of hair protruding

59.              Hidradenoma: tumor or neoplasm caused by sweat glands

60.              Hirsutism: excessive hair on the body especially in women

61.              Hives: itching wheals, urticari2,

62.              Hyperhidrosis: abnormal condition of excessive sweating

63.              Hypodermis: the second layer of skin below the dermis

64.              Ichthyosis: abnormal condition char­acterized by hardening, drying, and scaling of the skin

65.              Impetigo: skin pathology character­ized by vesicles which rupture and form thick yellowish crust

66.              In situ: confined in the original place

67.              Integument: skin and related struc­tures

68.              Irritation: inflammation with rough­ness or soreness

69.              Itching: uncomfortable skin condition inducing rubbing or scraping of the af­fected part

70.              Keloid: a firm movable nodule

71.              Keratin: a kind of protein found in hairs or nails

72.              Keratolytics: agents acting against the excessive shedding of the epidermis

73.              Keratosis: lesions on the epidermis characterized by the horny layer

74.              Laceration: a cut

75.              Lactic: relating to milk

76.              Lactiferous: giving milk

77.              Lentigo: freckle-like brown macule

78.              Lesion: a wound, cut, or in jury

79.              Lipocyte: fat cell

80.              Lipoid: resembling fat

81.              Lumpectomy: removal of a lump (mass) from the breast

82.              Lunula: a semilunar pale arched area at the beginning of the nail place

83.              Macule: a small discolored spot

84.              Malignant: spreading and difficult to control (neoplasm)

85.              Mammogram: the radiographic record of breast examination

86.              Mammography: x-ray, ultrasound, mri or any other radiologic examina­tion of the breast

87.              Mammoplasty: plastic surgery of the breast, syn. Mastoplasty

88.              Mastectomy: excision of the breast, syn. Mammectomy

89.              Mastoplasty: surgical repair of the breast, syn. Mammoplasty

90.              Melanocytes: pigment-producing cell. Syn. Melanodendrocyte

91.              Melanoma: malignant neoplasm of the skin

92.              Menarche: beginning of tile menstrua­tion cycle

93.              Metastasize: spread (of the disease) to other areas from the point of origin

94.              Microscope: an instrument used to view extremely small objects

95.              Mole: birthmark, nevus

96.              Neoplasms: abnormal pathological growth of cells

97.              Nevus: birthmark, mole

98.              Nipple: a projection at the apex of the breast where lactiferous ducts open

99.              Nodule: a small circumscribed swelling

100.          Nulliparous: a lady who has not expe­rienced childbirth

101.          Onychocryptosis: ingrown nail pro­ducing a pus-filled granuloma

102.          Onychomalacia: softening of the nails

103.          Pallor: paleness, yellowish coloration of the skin

104.          Papilla: small nipple-like orifice

105.          Papule: small elevation on the skin

106.          Parasiticides: agents that destroy parasites

107.          Pediculosis: lousiness, presence of lice

108.          Pemphigus: a pathological condition of skin blisters

109.          Petechia: small hemorrhagic spots

110.          Pilonidal: relating to the presence of hair in a sinus opening of the skin. 

111.          Pores: hole, opening

112.          Pruritus: itching

113.          Psoriasis: circumscribed discrete le­sions of macule or papule size which are confluent and silvery-scaled

114.          Purpura: lesions characterizing the hemorrhage into the skin

115.          Pustule: small circumscribed pus­-filled elevation

116.          Rash: skin eruptions

117.          Ringworm: dermatophytosis, fungus infection of the skin, hair or nails

118.          Scabies: vesicular eruptions and in­tense pruritus due to mites

119.          Scale: a small thin plate of hardened epithelium

120.          Scleroderma: hardening of the skin

121.          Sclerosis: abnormal condition of be­coming too firm or hard

122.          Sebaceous: relating to sebum or fat

123.          Sebum: secretion of the sebaceous glands

124.          Site: place, location

125.          Squamous: scaly, relating to scales

126.          Stage: extent or severity of the disease

127.          Stasis: stagnation, the condition of not changing

128.          Steatoma: tumor or neoplasm related to fat

129.          Stratum: layer

130.          Stratified squamous epithelium: epi­thelium containing scaly keratin cells

131.          Stratum corneum: outer layer of the epidermis

132.          Stratum germinativum: the deepest layer of the epidermis

133.          Subcutaneous: referring to the laver below the dermis

134.          Sudoriferous: of or related to sweats

135.          Suppuration: pyogenesis, pus forma­tion

136.          Thelitis: nipple or nipple-like structure

137.          Tinea: a fungus infection of hair, skin or nails

138.          Trichopathy: diseases associated with hairs

139.          Tumor: neoplasm, swelling

140.          Ulcer: an inflammatory lesion on the skin surface or surface of the mucous membrane

141.          Ungual: relating to nail

142.          Urticaria: itching condition of the skin characterized by wheals

143.          Verruca: circumscribed growth of the papillae

144.          Vesicle: small circumscribed fluid ­filled elevation of skin

145.          Vitiligo: skin condition characterized by white patches of varied sizes

146.          Wart: flesh-colored growth, verruca

147.          Welt: lesions occurring because of ur­ticaria, wheal, hives

148.          Xenograft: graft from an individual of one species to that of another species

149.          Xeroderma: dry scaly skin

150.          Xeromammography: xeroradiogra­phic breast examination

151.          Xeroradiography: radiography using the dry powder in stead of liquid chemicals

 

1.           Bx: biopsy

2.           C&S: culture and sensitivity

3.           derm: dermatology

4.           FS: frozen section

5.           HSV: herpes simplex virus

6.           I&D: incision and drainage

7.           KOH: potassium hydroxide

8.           ung.: ointment

9.           UV: ultraviolet

10.       decub.: decubitus

11.       ID : intradermal

12.       IM: intramuscularly

13.       IV: intravenously

14.       subcu: subcutaneous

15.       Dx: diagnosis

16.       FH: family history

17.       PE: physical examination

18.       SC: subcutaneous

19.       WBC: white blood cell

1.            adeno: glands

2.            adip/o: fat

3.            lip/a: fat

4.            steat/o: fat

5.            crypt/a: hidden

6.            cutane/o: skin I.

7.            dermat/o: skin

8.            derm/o: skin

9.            hidr/o: sweat

10.        ichthy/o: dry, scaly

11.        kerat/o: hardening

12.        lact/o: milk

13.        mammo/o: breast

14.        mast/o: breast

15.        myc/o: fungus

16.        onych/o: nail

17.        ungu/o: nail

18.        pillo: hair

19.        scler/o: hardening

20.        squam/o: scaly

21.        thel/o: nipple

22.        trich/o: hair

23.        xerlo: dry

1.          -cyte: cell

2.          -derma: skin

3.          -gram: record

4.          -graphy: process of recording

5.          -logist: specialist in the study of

6.          -logy: study of

7.          -therapy: treatment

1.          epi-: above

2.          hyper-: excessive

3.          hypo: below normal, less

4.          sub: below

 

 

 

BX	Bx, biop., Biopsy.
Derm	Dermatology
DLE	Discoid lupus erythematosus.
PPD	Purified protein derivative (of tuberculin).
SLE	Systemic lupus erythematosus.
Subq	(Sub cutis) subcutaneous.