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  • Chapter I - Human Anatomy

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    Otorhinolaryngology

     

    Introduction
     
    Otolaryngology is the branch of medicine that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of ear, nose, throat, and head & neck disorders. The full name of the specialty is otolaryngology-head and neck surgery. Practitioners are called otolaryngologists-head and neck surgeons, or sometimes otorhinolaryngologists (ORL). A somewhat outdated, but nevertheless commonly used term for this specialty is ENT (ear nose and throat).
     
    Ears and nose are both sense organs specially adapted for receiving stimuli of sound and smell, respec­tively.
     
    Anatomy and Physiology
     
    An ear is an organ used by an animal to detect sound waves. The term may refer to the entire system responsible for collection and early processing of sound (the beginning of the auditory system), or merely the externally visible part. Not all animals have ears in the same part of the body.
     
    Mammals, including humans, have two ears, one on each side of the head.
    1.    The outer ear is the external portion of the ear and includes the eardrum.
    2.    The middle ear includes the ossicles (three tiny bones), two muscle tendons (of the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles), and two nerve bundles (the horizontal portion of the facial nerve and a branch of the facial nerve called the chorda tympani).
    3.    The inner ear comprises both the organ of hearing (the cochlea) and the labyrinth or vestibular apparatus, the organ of balance located in the inner ear that consists of three semicircular canals and the vestibule.
     
    Outer Ear
    The outer ear is the external portion of the ear and includes the eardrum. The visible part is called the pinna, or auricle, and functions to collect and focus sound waves. Many mammals can move the pinna (with the auriculares muscles) in order to focus their hearing in a certain direction in much the same way that they can turn their eyes. Humans, as opposed to other mammals, do not have this ability. From the pinna the sound pressure waves move into the ear canal, a simple tube running to the middle ear. This tube amplifies frequencies in the range 3 kHz to 12 kHz.
     
    The human ear has earlobes at the bottom that are vestigial but are used by many people to provide an attachment point for earrings. The earlobe is usually formed cleft from the side of the face and hangs from the rest of the ear but occasionally will be found looking fused and "lobeless" due to a recessive gene. The helix is the outer edge of the outer ear
     
    Middle Ear
    The middle ear is the hollow portion of the ear behind the eardrum. The middle ear contains one or more ossicles, which amplify vibration of the eardrum into pressure waves in the fluid in the inner ear. The middle ear has also been called the tympanic cavity, or cavum tympani. The middle ear makes contact with the outside via the eardrum, the brain via the oval window, and the nasal cavity via the eustachian tube.
     
    Ossicles
    The middle ear contains three tiny bones known as the ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes. The ossicles were given their Latin names for their distinctive shapes; they are also referred to as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup, respectively. The ossicles amplify vibration of the eardrum, into pressure waves of the fluid in the cochlea (or inner ear). The eardrum is fused to the malleus, which connects to the incus, which in turn connects to the stapes. The footplate of the stapes fits snugly into the oval window. Vibrations of the stapes footplate introduce pressure waves in the inner ear. The ratio in area between the tympanic membrane and the oval window results in an effective amplification of approximately 14 db, peaking at a frequency of around 1 kHz. The combined transfer function of the outer ear and middle ear gives humans a peak sensitivity to frequencies between 1 kHz and 3 kHz.
     
    The movement of the ossicles may be stiffened by two muscles, the stapedius and tensor tympani, which are under the control of the facial nerve and trigeminal nerve, respectively. These muscles contract in response to loud sounds, thereby reducing the transmission of sound to the inner ear. This is called the acoustic reflex.
     
    Of surgical importance are two branches of the facial nerve, which also pass through the middle ear space. These are the horizontal and chorda tympani branches of the facial nerve. Damage to the horizontal branch during surgery can lead to partial, unilateral facial paralysis.
     
     
    Inner Ear
     
    The inner ear comprises both:
    ·                     The organ of hearing (the cochlea)
    ·                     The labyrinth or vestibular apparatus, the organ of balance located in the inner ear that consists of three semicircular canals and the vestibule.
     
    Cochlea
    The cochlea (Latin for "snail") is a spiraled, hollow, conical chamber of bone filled with perilymph and endolymph (in the scala media), a fluid medium that receives the sound vibrations transmitted from the air to the oval window through the ear drum and ossicles of the middle ear (see above). Running through its centre is the cochlea duct, which contains the spiral Organ of Corti, the receptor organ responsible for hearing. The bony cavity of the cochlea is divided into three separate chambers: the scala vestibuli, which lies superior to the cochlea duct and abuts the oval window; the scala media, which is the membranous cochlea duct containing endolymph and the organ of Corti; and the scala tympani, which lies inferior to the scala media and terminates at the round window. The two bony chambers (scala vestibuli and scala tympani) both contain perilymph and join together at the cochlear apex, a region called the helicotrema. Separating the scala vestibuli from the scala media is the Reissner's membrane. The basilar membrane separates the scala media from the scala tympani. Sitting on top of the basilar membrane is a cellular layer known as the Organ of Corti, which is lined with hair cells — sensory cells topped with hair-like structures called stereocilia.
     
    As the stapes oscillates against the oval window in response to sound, the perilymph within the scala vestibuli also oscillates. For very low frequencies (below 20Hz), the pressure waves propagate along the complete route of the cochlea - up scala vestibuli, around helicotrema and down scala tympani to the round window. Frequencies this low do not activate the organ of Corti and are below the threshold for hearing. Higher frequencies do not propagate to the helicotrema but are transmitted through the endolymph in the cochlea duct to the perilymph in the scala tympani. The hair cells in the organ of Corti are tuned to certain sound frequencies, being responsive to high frequencies near the oval window and to low frequencies near the apex of the cochlea.
    All excited hair cells send nerve impulses to the brain, which are perceived as a sound of whatever pitch the hair cell is associated with. A very strong movement of the endolymph due to very loud noise may cause hair cells to die. This is a common cause of partial hearing loss and is the reason why anyone using firearms or heavy machinery should wear earmuffs or earplugs.
     
    Vestibular Apparatus
    The vestibular apparatus is filled with the same endolymph as the cochlea, but instead of detecting sound, it detects rotation of the head. If a line is drawn through the middle of each of the three semicircular canals, perpendicular to the plane in which the canal lies, the three lines would be perpendicular. They would represent three axes of rotation. Any rotation could be represented as three simultaneous rotations about the three axes.
     
    Function and Mechanism of Hearing
     
    Ear is the organ for hearing and balance (equilibrium) in the body. The structure of the car converts vibrations of air into f1uid vibrations and then into sensory impulses. These sensory impulses are carried through the auditory nerve or the vestibulocochlear nerve to the centers in the brain for interpretation for hearing and equilibrium.
     
    External auditory meatus conveys vibrations of sound to the tympanic membrane and is about 1 inch long. A waxy secretion called cerumen is produced in this part. Its main function is to prevent dust particles, foreign bodies, etc., to reach the delicate part of middle ear or inner ear. Tympanic membrane or eardrum marks the beginning of the middle ear (tympanic cavity). Tympanic cavity is the site for the eustachian tube. From here, the tube runs forward into nasopharynx, where it opens. This tube helps in equalizing air pressure on each side of the tympanic membrane. This tube is also called a pharyngotympanic tube. The sound waves collected from the pinna and auditory meatus strike against the tympanic membrane. From the tympanic membrane the sound waves pass through bones called auditory ossicles. This chain of bones (ossicles) transmits the vibrations from tympanic membrane to inner ear. The inner ear is the most delicate part, consisting of several cavities, which channel in the temporal bone. Its two main parts (cavities) are a bony labyrinth and a membranous labyrinth inside it. Both are fluid-filled cavities. The fluid inside the bony labyrinth and outside membranous labyrinth is called perilymph. The fluid inside the membranous labyrinth is called endolymph. Bony labyrinth is divided into three regions, namely, semicircular canals, vestibule and cochlea. Vestibule is the central part with which all other parts communicate. It contains two sacs, saccule and utricle. The utricle is connected to semicircular canals, and from the saccule arises the cochlea. Fluid within saccule and utricle passes freely among the sacs and excess fluid is stored in the endolymph sac for return to circulation. Receptors (hair cells) on both these structures, along with semicircular canals, help in maintaining equilibrium. Movement of the endolymph within the membranous labyrinth caused by head movement and head position stimulates the hair cells, which generate impulses through the vestibulocochlear nerve and in response to this we make appropriate movements to co-ordinate the head’s activity and maintain balance.
     
    The third area of inner ear is cochlea, which is a spiral tube twisted on itself. The cochlea has a membranous labyrinth inside it, which is called cochlear duct and contains endolymph. The surrounding cochlear duct on the inside is the basilar membrane, which has many sensory structures called organ of Corti, which contain hair cel1s that are re-ceptors for auditory stimuli. When three ossicles vibrate, they transfer the vibrations to the fluid within the cochlea, which is then set into motion. This moving fluid (endolymph) within the cochlea moves the basilar membrane and, as a result, the hair cells attached to the organ of Corti are stimulated. These impulses (stimuli) are transmitted to the brain for interpretation as sound.
     
    ·                     The eighth cranial nerve or the auditory nerve supplies the special sense of hearing and the olfactory or first cranial nerve supplies the sense of smell.
    ·                     Stirrup, found in ear, is the smallest bone in the human body.
     
    Nose and Throat
     
    Nose and throat have already been discussed in the anatomical section in detail. Below mentioned are few important points in regards to otorhinolaryngology.
     
    Breathing starts with the air entering the nasal cavity. The nasal cavi-ties, also known as nostrils, are divided into the right and the left sides by a vertical partition called septum. These nasal cavities have mucous membranes and small hairs, called vibrissae, which warm, moisten, and filter the incoming air. The receptors for the sense of smell are also located in the nasal cavities among the epithelial cells. These receptors are known as olfactory neurons, and they are located up in the nasal cavities. The nose is the primary organ for smelling. As we sniff, the air flows through the nose and over structures called turbinates in the nasal cavity. The turbulence caused by this disruption slows the air and directs it toward the olfactory epithelium. At the surface of the olfactory epithelium, odor molecules carried by the air contact olfactory receptor neurons, which transduce the features of the molecule into electrical impulses in the brain.
     
    Air passes from the nasal cavities to the pharynx.
     
    The pharynx is the combined part of the digestive system and respiratory system of many animals. It is situated immediately posterior to the mouth and nasal cavity, and is cranial to the oesophagus, larynx, and trachea. Because both food and air pass through the pharynx, special adaptations are necessary to prevent choking or aspiration when food or liquid is swallowed. In humans the pharynx is important in vocalization.
     
    The human pharynx is conventionally divided into three sections:
    ·                    Nasopharynx, lying behind the nasal cavity. Posterosuperiorly this extends from the level of the junction of the hard and soft palates to the base of skull, laterally to include the fossa of Rosenmüller. The inferior wall consists of the superior surface of the soft palate.
    ·                    Oropharynx, which lies behind the oral cavity. The anterior wall consists of the base of tongue and vallecula; the lateral wall is made up of the tonsil, tonsillar fossa, and tonsillar (faucial) pillars; the superior wall consists of the inferior surface of the soft palate and the uvula.
    ·                    Hypopharynx which includes the pharyngoesophageal junction (postcricoid area), the piriform sinus, and the posterior pharyngeal wall.
     
    Adenoids, also known as pharyngeal tonsils, are located in the nasopharynx. The palatine tonsils, at times referred to as just tonsils’, are located in the oropharynx. The larynx is found in the laryngopharynx and is responsible for sound production or phona­tion. There is a leaf-shaped structure situated at the top of the larynx, which closes the passage to the lungs while swallowing, thus preventing the food particles and other irritants from entering the lungs. This leaf-shaped structure is called epig­lottis The larynx is a short passage that connects the pharynx with the trachea             
     
    Physical Assessment
     
    In transcription, physical assessment with regards to ears, nose, and throat is usually bundled up with examination of the eyes and the head and is gener­ally transcribed under the heading HEENT (H-head, E-eyes, E-ears, N-nose, T-throat.) The assessment begins with external exam of the ears and nose and the oral mucosa. After a cursory and brief external exam, the physician then proceeds to each individual part. Usually starts with proper examination of the inner ear with otoscopy. External audi­tory canal and tympanic membranes are inspected for color, translucency and po­sition of the eardrum and wax and tear of the eardrums are specially looked for. The tympanic membranes generally appear translucent and pinkish gray in color and any significant variation in the texture usually denotes some disease process. The tympanic membranes are then checked for mobility with air inflation and the malleus for its oblique position behind the upper part of the drum. After this hearing assay is done with specific tests already discussed above.
     
    After examination of the ears, the physician the proceeds with inspection of the nose. The nasal bone, cartilage, pas­sages, inferior and middle turbinates are all inspected through a speculum or by tilting the tip of the nose with a penlight. More focus is given to the contour of the septum and the color of the mucus membrane. After this comes the inspection of the throat or the oral cavity. The patient is asked to open the mouth and checked for bad breath, lesions, tonsillitis, caries, uvular anomalies, palatal anomalies, tongue texture, and for any oral mucosal ulcers or lesions. The examination then usually concludes with a direct and indirect laryngoscopy to look for any vocal chord paralysis, lesions, nodes, adenoids, etc.
     
    Pathological Conditions
     
    Acute coryza
    One of the most widespread illnesses-acute coryza or upper respiratory infection-is generally referred to as the common cold. This pathology is characterized by sore throat, sneezing, nasal congestion, and runny nose. This disease condition is highly contagious and easily spreads from one per­son to another. A physician diagnoses the condition by the presence of the above-men­tioned symptoms. Sometimes, he also asks for a throat culture in order to rule out strep or other bacterial infections. There is no cure for this disease, and the body’s own immune system heals itself in five to six days. How­ever, this disease can lead to other complica­tions. The doctor may prescribe medications like Sudafed, oxymetazoline (Afrin), guaifenesin (Entex), to name a few. 
     
    Earaches
    Otalgia is ear pain or an earache. Primary otalgia is from pain that originates inside the ear. Referred otalgia is from pain that originates from outside the ear.
    Typical sources of primary otalgia are external otitis, otitis media, mastoiditis, auricular infections, and, rarely, GERD. Dental disorders are the most common cause of referred otalgia. These include temporomandibular joint disorders, bruxism, and abscessed teeth. Tonsillitis and pharyngitis are also common causes of earaches in children. These earaches are constant or intermittent with dull, sharp, burning, or throbbing pain.
     
     
    Otitis media
     
    Otitis media (also known as glue ear) is an inflammation of the middle ear segment of the ear. It is usually associated with a buildup of fluid and frequently causes an earache. The fluid may or may not be infected.
     
    There are several kinds of otitis media:
    1.                   Acute otitis media is an infection that produces pus, fluid, and inflammation within the middle ear. It is frequently associated with signs of upper respiratory infection, such as a runny nose or stuffy nose.
    2.                   Otitis media with effusion is the presence of middle ear fluid for six weeks or more from the initial acute otitis media.
    3.                   Chronic otitis media may develop when the infection persists for more than two weeks.
     
    Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae are the most common bacterial causes of otitis media. Still, antibiotics are rarely effective in shortening disease duration. Tubal dysfunction leads to the ineffective clearing of bacteria from the middle ear.
     
    As well as being caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae it can also be caused by the colds.
     
    Another common culprit of otitis media includes Moraxella Catarrhalis, a gram negative, aerobic, and oxidase positive diplococci.
     
    Otitis Externa
    Otitis externa (also called swimmer's ear or earache) is an inflammation, irritation, or infection of the outer ear and ear canal.
     
    Otitis externa is fairly common, especially among teenagers and young adults. Swimming in polluted water is one way to contract swimmer's ear. Trying to clean wax from the ear canal, especially with cotton swabs or small objects, can irritate or damage the skin. It is occasionally associated with middle ear infection (otitis media) or upper respiratory infections such as colds. Middle ear infections can occur after the ear drum is perforated by a fungal growth from the outer ear. Moisture in the ear predisposes the ear to infection from fungus or water-loving bacteria such as Pseudomonas.
     
    Symptoms
    ·        Ear pain-may worsen when pulling the outer ear
    ·        Itching of the ear or ear canal
    ·        Drainage from the ear-yellow, yellow-green, pus-like, or foul smelling
    ·        Decreased hearing or hearing loss
     
    Treatment
    The goal of treatment is to cure the infection. The ear canal should be cleaned of drainage to allow topical medications to work effectively. Depending on how severe the infection is, it may be necessary for a doctor to aspirate the ear as many times as twice a week for the first two or three weeks of treatment.
     
    Effective medications include eardrops containing antibiotics to fight infection and corticosteroids to reduce itching and inflammation and analgesics to reduce pain. Use of antibiotics to treat ear infections may result in treatment of the wrong cause of the infection because not all ear infections are bacterial; some are fungal, and it is possible to have both a bacterial and fungal ear infection.
     
    Labyrinthitis
    Labyrinthitis is a balance disorder that usually follows an upper respiratory tract infection (URI). It is, as the name suggests, an inflammatory process affecting the labyrinths that house the vestibular system (which senses changes in motion) of the inner ear.
     
    In addition to balance control issues, a labyrinthitis patient often encounters hearing loss and tinnitus. It appears labyrinthitis is caused by a virus (the herpes virus has been implicated) but can also arise from bacterial infection, head injury, an allergy or as a reaction to a particular medicine. Both bacterial and viral labyrinthitis can cause permanent hearing loss, although this is rare. Prochlorperazine is commonly prescribed for all types of the infection, which helps with the nausea and sickness.
     
    Labyrinthitis and Vertigo
    A prominent and debilitating symptom of labyrinthitis is chronic dizziness. The vestibular system is a set of sensory inputs, which aid balance control systems by measuring changes in rotational and linear motion. The brain combines visual cues with sensory input from the vestibular system to determine adjustments required to retain balance. When working properly, the vestibular system also relays information on head movement to the eye muscle, forming the vestibulo-ocular reflex, in order to retain continuous visual focus during motion. When the vestibular system is affected by labyrinthitis, rapid, undesired eye motion (nystagmus), often results from the improper indications of rotational motion. Nausea, anxiety, and a general ill feeling are common due to the distorted balance signals that the brain receives from the inner ear. Recovery from acute labyrinthine inflammation generally takes from one to six weeks.
     
    Labyrinthitis and Anxiety
    Chronic anxiety is a common side effect of labyrinthitis, which can produce tremors, heart palpitations, panic attacks and depression. Often a panic attack is one of the first symptoms to occur as labyrinthitis begins. While dizziness can occur from extreme anxiety, labyrinthitis itself can precipitate a panic disorder.
     
    Barotitis
    Barotitis is caused by the changes in the barometric pressures, usually caused by the takeoff or landing of an air­plane. Problems include ear pain, ringing, diminished hearing and, sometimes, dizziness. Alternate terms include aerotitis, aerotitis media, barotitis media, and otic barotrauma. Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics in the form of eardrops or oral medications. The patients are encouraged to complete the en­tire course of therapy least the disease should recur. Blocked eustachian tubes are generally opened with medicated nasal drops. Severe or chronic otitis media requires an insertion of a plastic drainage tube to drain the pus or fluid. Ruptured eardrum is repaired with the procedure called tympanoplasty. Otitis externa or swimmer's ear is treated with anti­biotic, antifungal, or corticosteroid ear drops.
     
    Hearing Loss
                                  
    A hearing impairment is a decrease in one's ability to hear (i.e. perceive auditory information). While some cases of hearing loss are reversible with medical treatment, many lead to a permanent disability (often called deafness). If the hearing loss occurs at a young age, it may interfere with the acquisition of spoken language and social development. Hearing aids and cochlear implants may alleviate some of the problems caused by hearing impairment, but are often insufficient. People who have hearing impairments, especially those who develop a hearing problem later in life, often require support and technical adaptations as part of the rehabilitation process.
     
    Causes
    There are five causes of hearing loss: long term exposure to environmental noise, genetic factors, disease processes affecting the ear, medication and physical trauma.
     
    Types
    There are three major types of hearing loss: neural/sensorineural, conductive, or a combination of both. Treatment depends upon the type of hearing loss that is present.
     
    Sensorineural
    Sensorineural hearing loss is caused by damage/malfunction of the inner ear (cochlea, eighth cranial nerve) or auditory brainstem. This can be divided further into a sensory hearing loss (inner ear) or a neural hearing loss (brainstem).
     
    Conductive
    Conductive hearing loss is caused by damage/malfunction of the middle or outer ear system (external ear canal, eardrum, or structures in the middle ear space including the malleus, incus and stapes bones).
     
    Combination
    Mixed hearing loss is caused by both conductive and sensorineural causes.
     
    Quantification of hearing loss
    The severity of hearing loss is measured by the degree of loudness, as measured in decibels a sound must attain before being detected by an individual. Hearing loss may be ranked as mild, moderate, severe or profound. It is quite common for someone to have more than one degree of hearing loss (i.e. mild sloping to severe). The following list shows the rankings and their corresponding decibel ranges:
    ·        Mild:
    ·        for adults: between 25 and 40 db
    ·        for children: between 15 and 40 db
    ·        Moderate: between 41 and 55 db
    ·        Moderately severe: between 56 and 70 db
    ·        Severe: between 71 and 90 db
    ·        Profound: 90 db or greater
     
    Unilateral hearing loss
    People with unilateral hearing loss (single sided deafness/SSD) can hear normally in one ear, but have trouble hearing out of the other ear. Problems with this type of deficit is inability to localize sounds (ie. unable to tell where traffic is coming from) and inability to process out background noise in a noisy environment, such as in a restaurant.
     
    Treatment
    In order to treat the hearing loss, the phy­sician prescribes a hearing aid if the loss is not severe. The type of hearing aid depends on the cause of the hearing loss. The patients are also trained in lip-reading. In some cases of otosclerosis, the surgery (stapedectomy) is performed to take out the malfunctioning stapes, and a prosthesis is inserted, which conducts sound vibrations to the inner ear.
     
    Presbycusis
    The tiny hair cells that line the cochlea degenerate with age. These cells are responsible for, sending the messages to the brain through the auditory nerves. Deterioration of these cells makes hearing difficult. This sensory-neural hearing loss is known as presbycusis. Hearing loss usually begins gradually after the age of sixty, and is usually more noticeable in men than women. Over time, the detection of high-pitched sounds becomes more difficult. Both ears tend to be affected.
     
    Otosclerosis
    Otosclerosis is a hearing condition in which the stapes in the ear becomes attached to the surrounding bone by an abnormal bone growth. Sound transmission is progressively impaired so that hearing in the affected ear deteriorates.
     
     
    Laryngitis
    Laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx. It causes hoarse voice or the complete loss of the voice because of irritation to the vocal folds (vocal cords). It is categorized as acute if it lasts less than a few days. Otherwise it is categorized as chronic.
     
    Laryngitis is often caused by a virus or by bacteria.
     
    Other causes include smoking, various allergies, reflux and straining the voice through singing or shouting.
     
     
    Home treatments
    ·        Ibuprofen and aspirin may help alleviate fever and some of the discomfort associated with laryngitis
    ·        Avoid speaking when possible. Speak softly, but do not whisper
    ·        Drink warm liquids such as tea or a honey-lemon drink.
    ·        Take cough drops/throat lozenges. If unavailable, suck on hard candy.
    ·        Stay hydrated, drink plenty of liquids; water, orange juice, etc.
    ·        Humidifiers and warm showers can also help alleviate some symptoms.
    ·        Avoid airborne irritants such as smoke and allergens.
    ·        Gargle with a salt-water rinse; avoid mouth rinses containing alcohol which can dry the throat (however, these can be helpful when the cause of the infection is bacterial).
     
    Ménière’s Disease
    Ménière's disease (or syndrome, since its cause is unknown) was first described by French physician Prosper Ménière in 1861. It is a balance disorder of the inner ear.
     
    The symptoms of Ménière’s are variable; not all sufferers experience the same symptoms. However, four symptoms are considered to comprise so-called "classic Ménière’s”:
    ·        periodic episodes of rotary vertigo (the abnormal sensation of movement) or dizziness
    ·        fluctuating, progressive, unilateral (in one ear) or bilateral (in both ears) hearing loss, often in the lower frequency ranges
    ·        unilateral or bilateral tinnitus (the perception of noises, often ringing, roaring, or whooshing), sometimes variable
    ·        a sensation of fullness or pressure in one or both ears
    Ménière’s often begins with one symptom, and gradually progresses. A diagnosis may be made in the absence of all four classic symptoms.
     
    Cause
    The exact cause of Ménière's disease is not known, but it is believed to be related to endolymphatic hydrops or excess fluid in the inner ear. It is thought that endolymphatic fluid bursts from its normal channels in the ear and flows into other areas causing damage. This may be related to swelling of the endolymphatic sac or other issues in the vestibular system of the inner ear, which is responsible for the body's sense of balance. The symptoms may occur in the presence of a middle ear infection, head trauma or an upper respiratory tract infection, or by using aspirin, smoking cigarettes or drinking alcohol.
     
    Treatment
    The patient is asked to restrict fluid intake and take a diuretic to lower the level of the body fluid. In some cases, electrocochleography may also be per-formed in which a probe is inserted under local anesthesia through the eardrum to mea-sure the eardrum to measure the electrical activity. Medical treatment includes usage of antihistamines (Benadryl, Antivert, Valium), antinausea drugs (dimenhydrinate, Transderm), or steroids (prednisone) to alleviate the episodes of Meniere Disease. Sometimes surgery may also be recommended. Another treatment is chemical labyrinthectomy, in which a drug (such as gentamicin) that "kills" the vestibular apparatus is injected into the inner ear. Lipoflavonoid is also recommended for treatment by some doctors.
     
     Pharyngitis
    Pharyngitis is a painful inflammation of the pharynx, and is colloquially referred to as a sore throat. Infection of the tonsils, tonsillitis (American English: tonsillitis) may occur simultaneously.
    The major cause is infection, of which 90% are viral, the remainder caused by bacterial infection and rarely oral thrush (fungal candidiasis e.g. in babies). Some cases of pharyngitis are caused by irritation from agents such as pollutants, chemicals, or smoke.
     
     Pharyngitis is generally treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics, which may range penicillin, azithromycin, erythromycin, doxycycline, and ceftriaxone. 
     
     
    Types
     
    Viral sore throats
    These comprise about 90% of all infectious cases and can be a feature of many different types of viral infections.
    ·        Adenovirus
    ·        Orthomyxoviridae which cause Influenza
    ·        Infectious mononucleosis ("glandular fever") caused by the Epstein-Barr virus. Herpes simplex virus can cause multiple mouth ulcers.
    ·        Measles
     
    Bacterial sore throat-The most common bacterial agent is streptococcus. 
     
    Diphtheria-Diphtheria is a potential life threatening upper respiratory infection caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae which has been largely eradicated in developed nations since the introduction of childhood vaccination programs, but is still reported in the Third World and increasingly in some areas in Eastern Europe. Antibiotics are effective in the early stages, but recovery is generally slow.
     
    Treatment
    The treatment of pharyngitis will vary according to the cause.
    ·        Iodine compounds sold as Betadine or TCP can be gargled to shorten the duration of the infection. These compounds are effective anti-viral agents.
    ·        Antibiotics are only helpful when a bacterial infection is the cause of the sore throat. For bacterial sore throats, antibiotics have been shown to only affect the degree of pain by day 4 and shorten the average natural duration by 16 hours overall (14 people need be treated for a week to reduce the duration by one day.)
     
    Symptomatic
    ·                     Lozenges (cough medicine) are often used for short-term pain relief.
    ·                     Gargling with warm salty water is a popular household remedy, although there is only anecdotal evidence this gives other than temporary relief and likewise for the use of aspirin gargles.
    ·                     Warm tea can help temporarily alleviate the pain of a sore throat.
    ·                     Analgesics such as NSAIDs can help reduce the pain associated with a sore throat.
     
    Sinusitis
    Sinusitis is inflammation, either bacterial, fungal, viral, allergic or autoimmune, of the paranasal sinuses.
     
    By location
    Sinusitis is classified by the sinus cavity, which it affects:
    Maxillary sinusitis-causes pain in the maxillary area (e.g., toothache, headache)
    Frontal sinusitis-causes pain in the frontal sinus cavity (located behind/above eyes), headache
    Ethmoid sinusitis-causes pain between and/or behind eyes, headache
    Sphenoid sinusitis-causes less generalized pain, headache
     
    Acute vs. chronic
    Sinusitis can be acute (going on less than four weeks), subacute (4-8 weeks) or chronic (going on for 8 weeks or more).
    Both types of sinusitis have similar symptoms, and are thus often difficult to distinguish.
     
    Acute sinusitis
    Acute sinusitis is often brought on by bacteria, such as Haemophilus influenzae, streptococci, or staphylococci.
    It is usually precipitated by an earlier upper respiratory tract infection, generally of the viral type.
     
    Chronic sinusitis:
    Chronic sinusitis is one of the most common complications of the common cold.
    Symptoms include nasal congestion; facial pain; headache; fever; general malaise; thick green or yellow discharge; feeling of facial 'fullness' worsening on bending over.
     
    In a small number of cases, chronic maxillary sinusitis can also be brought on by the spreading of bacteria from a dental infection. Chronic hyperplastic eosinophilic sinusitis is a noninfective form of chronic sinusitis.
     
    Treatment
    Therapeutic measures include simple painkillers (aspirin, paracetamol (acetaminophen) or similar), inhaling steam, nasal irrigation or jala neti using a warm saline solution, hot drinks including tea and chicken soup, over-the-counter decongestants, and getting plenty of rest. If sinusitis doesn't improve within 48 hours, or is causing significant pain, one should see a doctor, who may prescribe antibiotics or nasal steroids. If the recommended doses and duration of antibiotic treatment(s) are ineffective, one should consult a doctor; who may suggest further treatment by a qualified specialist.
    If left untreated, sinusitis can lead to bronchitis and pneumonia.
    A recent advance in the treatment of sinusitis is a type of surgery called FESS - functional endoscopic sinus surgery, whereby normal clearance from the sinuses is restored by removing the anatomical and pathological obstructive variations that predispose to sinusitis. This replaces the less effective Caldwell-Luc surgery.
     
     
    Tinnitus
    Tinnitus is a phenomenon of the nervous system connected to the ear, characterized by perception of a ringing or beating sound (often perceived as sinusoidal) with no external source. This sound may be a quiet background noise, or loud enough to drown out all outside sounds. It is sometimes referred to as "the club disease" as many people get temporary tinnitus at loud clubs or concerts.
    Tinnitus can be objective (the sound, e.g., a bruit, can be perceived by a clinician) or subjective (perceived only by the patient).
     
    Causes
    Causes of tinnitus include:
    ·          A sudden loud noise, prolonged exposure to loud music through PA systems or personal stereos, exposure to an excessively noisy work environment without ear protection, (Eg. industrial)
    ·          Hearing loss (20 per cent of cases: chronic noise damage and presbycusis)
    ·          Head injury (especially basal skull fracture)
    ·          Drugs: aspirin overdose, loop diuretics, aminoglycoside, quinine
    ·          Temporomandibular and cervical spine disorders
    ·          Suppurative otitis media (also chronic infection and serous OM)
    ·          Otosclerosis
    ·          Ear wax
    ·          Ménière’s disease
    ·          Impacted wisdom teeth
    ·          Hypertension and atherosclerosis
    ·          Acoustic neuroma
    ·          Palatal myoclonus (objectively detectable)
    ·          Arteriovenous fistulae and arterial bruits (objectively detectable)
    ·          Severe anemia and renal failure
    ·          Glomus jugulare tumors (objectively detectable)
    ·          Lyme Disease
    ·          Stress and depression
    ·          Thyroid disorders, such as hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism
     
    The treatment involves curing the patient of the underlying disease, chang­ing the drug regimen, and using a hearing aid or tinnitus masker.
     
     
    Vertigo
    Vertigo, sometimes called a headrush, is a major symptom of a balance disorder. It is the sensation of spinning while the body is stationary. With the eyes shut, there will be a sensation that the body is in movement, called subjective vertigo; if the eyes are open, the surroundings will appear to move past the field of vision, called objective vertigo.
    The effects may be slight. It may cause nausea or, if severe, may give rise to difficulty with standing and walking. Vertigo is usually associated with a problem in the inner ear balance mechanisms (vestibular system), in the brain, or with the nerve connections between these two organs. The most common cause is benign positional vertigo.
     
    We are able to maintain our equilibrium and balance in space with the help of vision, touch, hearing, and the vestibular system in the inner ear. Many areas of the brain also contribute to our sense of equilibrium. Dis­turbance or malfunctioning in any of these areas can result in the diseases of dizziness, such as vertigo, disequilibrium, or light­headedness. True vertigo (an illusion of mo­tion) often comes with a feeling of nausea and vomiting, and the person feels that the room is moving around him or as if he him­self is moving around the room. The vertigo may originate in the vestibular region of the Inner ear or in the brain itself. There can be many reasons for vertigo, e.g. tumors, head injuries, Meniere disease, allergic rhinitis inner ear infection, or extremely high doses of certain medicines.
     
    Disequilibrium is a slightly less severe from of imbalance and can result from the degeneration of the nerve. It is an unsteady feeling of falling and can result of al­coholism as well.
     
    Important:
    ·        Vertigo should not be confused with dizziness. Dizziness is an unpleasant feeling of light-headedness, giddiness or fuzziness often accompanied by nausea.
    ·        Vertigo is often used, incorrectly, to describe a fear of heights.
    ·        Vertigo is often experienced when breathing helium, as a result of helium flow instead of oxygen to the brain.
     
    Based upon the cause of dizziness, a physician may prescribe dimenhydrinate (Hydrate) or meclizine (Antivert). Inner ear infections are treated by the antibiotics. In case the vertigo is the result of some other underlying disease, treatment of that disease contributes to the final treat­ment of vertigo.
     
    Procedures
     
    Audiometry
     
    Audiometry is the testing of hearing ability. Typically, audiometric tests determine a subject's hearing levels, but may also measure ability to discriminate between different sound intensities, recognize pitch, or distinguish speech from background noise. Acoustic reflex and otoacoustic emissions may also be measured. There are different kinds of auditory tests, viz., automatic audiometry, behavioral observation audiometry, cortical audiometry, and diagnostic audiometry. Results of audiometric tests are used to diagnose hearing loss or diseases of the ear. They also determine the kind of impairment, i.e. conductive, sensorineural, or mixed.
     
    Heimlich Maneuver
     
    The Heimlich Maneuver, also known as abdominal thrusts, is a first aid procedure for clearing an obstructed airway. It is an effective lifesaving measure in cases of choking. Dr. Henry Heimlich also has promoted it as a treatment for drowning and asthma attacks, but the practice of using the maneuver for these afflictions has not gained wide acceptance. Briefly, a person performing the Heimlich maneuver uses their hands to exert pressure on the bottom of the diaphragm. This compresses the lungs and exerts pressure on any object lodged in the trachea, hopefully expelling it. This amounts to an artificial cough. (The victim of an obstructed airway, having lost the ability to draw air into the lungs, has lost the ability to cough on their own.)
     
    Rinne Test
     
    Rinne test is performed to determine the smooth functioning of the sound conduction mechanism. By virtue of a normal sound con­duction mechanism through the middle ear, air conduction will be greater than the bone conduction. To determine the sound conduction mechanism, a vibrating tuning fork is placed by the skull until the sound is lost. The prongs are then placed near the audi­tory orifice and a faint sound is again heard. A disorder of the sound conduction mecha­nism will make bone conduction greater than air conduction.
     
    In short, Rinne test of hearing compares perception of sounds, as transmitted by air or by sound conduction through the mastoid.
     
    In a normal ear, air conduction (AC) is better than bone conduction (BC)
    AC > BC, positive Rinne.
     
    In conductive hearing loss, bone conduction is better than air
    BC > AC, negative Rinne.
     
    In sensorineural hearing loss, bone conduction and air conduction are both equally depreciated, maintaining the relative difference of
    AC > BC, positive Rinne.
     
    In sensorineural hearing loss patients there may be a false negative Rinne
    BC > AC,
     
    If the normal ear is not masked, and bone conduction heard in the normal ear is reported as louder by the patient.
     
     Weber Test
    In the Weber test of hearing, a tuning fork is struck and placed on the patient's forehead. The patient is asked to report in which ear the sound is heard louder.
     
    A normal patient would report that the sound is heard equally in both ears. A patient with a conductive hearing loss would hear the sound louder in the affected ear. This is because the affected ear cannot hear ambient noises as well because of its conductive hearing loss and so is effectively masked to these noises and able to focus more on the sound conducted through the skull. You can replicate this yourself by plugging one ear with your finger (i.e. mimicking a conductive hearing loss) and performing the Weber test on yourself.
     
    A patient with a sensorineural hearing loss would hear the sound louder in the normal ear, because the affected ear is less effective at picking up sound even if is transmitted directly by conduction into the cochlea.
     
    Pharmacology
     
    Aural preparations
    Drugs for the ears can be classified under four different categories: antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and anti-­infective combinations, and drugs for wax removal. Antibacterial preparations are gen­erally used in the treatment of inflamma­tions in the external ear. Examples of such drugs are gentamicin and ciprofloxacin. An­tifungal drugs are also known as antimycotic and they are antagonists to fungi. Clotrimazole is such an antimycotic, which is used in the treatment of otomycosis. Wax is a natural secretion in the ear. Sometimes, excess wax in the ear can cause deafness or block the view of the tympanic membrane. In such cases, removal of wax becomes a neces­sity. Ceruminolytic agents like Cerumenex are instilled, which emulsify and remove the wax.
     
    Nasal Preparations
    Nasal preparations can be divided into three broad categories: topical nasal deconges­tants, nasal anti-infectives, and nasal antiallergics. Topical nasal decongestants, like ephedrine are used to provide symptomatic relief from the nasal congestion. They act by achieving vasoconstriction and thereby re­lieving the congestion. Nasal antiallergics, mostly corticosteroids, exert their action by the stabilization of the mast cel1s.
     
    Oropharyngeal Preparations
    Pathological conditions such as gingivitis, stomatitis, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, and oral candidal infections require oropharyngeal preparations to get healed. Drugs like Hibiclens, Peridex, and Betadinegargles are used for this purpose.
     
    Abbreviations
     
    1.         ABR: auditory brainstem response
    2.         AC: air conduction
    3.          AD: right ear (auris dextra)
    4.          AOM acute otitis media
    5.          AS: left ear (auris sinistra)
    6.          AU: both ears (auris uterque)
    7.          db: decibel (unit for expressing sound)
    8.          ENT: ears, nose, and throat
    9.          HEENT: head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat
    10.          PE tubes: pressure-equalizing tubes
    11.          PND: postnasal drainage; paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea
    12.          T &A: tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy
    13.          TM: tympanic membranes
    14.          UPPP: uvulopalatopharyngoplasty
    15.          URI: upper respiratory infection
    Vocabulary
     
    1.          Acusis: normal hearing
    2.          Adenectomy: excision of adenoids
    3.          Adenitis: inflammation of the lymph node or gland
    4.          Adenocarcinoma: a malignant neo­plasm. Of epithelial cells in a glandular pattern
    5.          Adenoid: gland-like appearance
    6.          Adenopathy: disease of the lymph nodes
    7.          Ala nasi: outer flaring wall of each nos­tril; wing of the nose
    8.          Anacusis: total loss or absence of abil­ity of hearing
    9.          Annulus: a ring; circular structure
    10.          Arytenoid: .cartilage and muscles of larynx
    11.          Audiology: study of hearing disorders through identification and measure­ment of hearing loss
    12.          Audiometry: test for measuring hearing levels with the help of an audiometer
    13.          Auditory: related to the sense of hear­ing
    14.          Aural: related to the ear
    15.          Auricle: external ear
    16.          Cerumen: a waxy secretion of external auditory canal; earwax
    17.          Cholesteatoma: a tumor-like mass of squamous epithelium and cholesterol in the middle ear
    18.          Cochlea: a spiral, cone-shaped cavity in the internal ear
    19.          Conchae: a shell-shaped structure in the anatomy for example, auricle of the ear
    20.          Conduction: transmission from one point to another of energy forms of energy without evident movement in the conducting body
    21.          Conductive deafness: impairment of hearing caused due to obstruction or interference with sound waves transmission through the external ear, the middle ear. And auditory ossic1es
    22.          Coryza: acute rhinitis; inflammation of the mucous lining of nose marked by sneezing, lacrimation, and secretion of a watery mucus discharge
    23.          Cricoid: ring-shaped: lowermost laryn­geal cartilage
    24.          Dysacusia: difficulty in processing sound; difficulty in hearing
    25.          Dysosmia: altered sense of smell: diffi­culty in processing smell
    26.          Dysphagia: difficulty swallowing
    27.          Epiglottic: related to the epiglottis
    28.          Epiglottis: an elastic cartilage at the roof of tongue, which covers the open­ing of windpipe during swallowing to prevent it getting choked     .
    29.          Epiglottitis : inf1ammation of the epig­lottis, can cause fatal respiratory ob­struction, especially in small children 
    30.          Epistaxis: bleeding from the nose
    31.          Erythema: redness of skin
    32.          Eustachian tube: the tube that leads from the middle ear to the nasophar­ynx and equalizes the pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane
    33.          Exudate: any fluid that has seeped out of a tissue, due to any inflammation or injury
    34.          Fenestra: an opening in anatomy; win­dow
    35.          Fenestra ovalis: an oval opening in the wall of the tympanic cavity and the vestibule, closed by base of stapes
    36.          Foramen: an opening or aperture, es­pecially in a l)(me or membrane
    37.          Glossoepiglottic: relating to tongue and epiglottis
    38.          Glossopharyngeal: related to tongue pharynx
    39.          Helical: relating to helix
    40.          Helix: the folded margin of the exter­nal ear
    41.          Hyperacusis/hyperacusia: hearing acuteness due to irritability of the sensory and neural mechanism of the ear
    42.          Incus: the middle of the three ossicles in middle ear; anvil
    43.          Jugular: relating to neck or throat
    44.          Keratoid: horny
    45.          Labyrinth: an anatomical structure composed of many intercommunicat­ing canals and cavities. For example, the inner ear
    46.          Labyrinthitis: inflammation of the labyrinth
    47.          Laryngeal: relating to the larynx
    48.          Laryngectomy: excision of the larynx
    49.          Laryngitis: inflammation of mucous membrane of the larynx
    50.          Laryngograph: an instrument used for tracing activity of larynx, vocal cord
    51.          Laryngoparalysis: paralysis of the lar­ynx
    52.          Laryngopharyngeal: relating to both the larynx and the pharynx
    53.          Laryngopharyngectomy: excision of both the larynx and the pharynx
    54.          Laryngoplasty: surgical repair of the larynx
    55.          Laryngoscope: an endoscope used to examine the interior of the larynx
    56.          Laryngostomy: forming an opening from the neck into the larynx
    57.          Laryngotomy: a surgical incision of the larynx
    58.          Laryngotracheal: relating to both the larynx and the trachea
    59.          Larynx: an organ of voice production located between the pharynx and the trachea
    60.          Malleus: largest of the three ossicles of the ear
    61.          Meatus: a passage, especially an exter­nal opening
    62.          Meniere disease: disease of inner ear characterized by vertigo, nausea, vom­iting, tinnitus, and progressive deafness
    63.          Myringectomy: excision of the tym­panic membrane
    64.          Myringitis: inflammation of the tym­panic membrane
    65.          Myringoplasty: surgical repair of the tympanic membrane
    66.          Myringotomy: surgical incision into the tympanic membrane
    67.          Naris: nostril
    68.          Nasofrontal: relating to the nose and the forehead
    69.          Nasogastric: involving the nasal pas­sages and the stomach
    70.          Nasogastric tube: a tube passed into the stomach through the nose
    71.          Nasolabial: related to the nose and upper lip
    72.          Naso-oral : related to the nose and mouth
    73.          Nasopharyngeal: related to the nose and the pharynx
    74.          Nasopharynx: part of pharynx that line above the soft palate
    75.          Nasotracheal intubation: intubation of the trachea through the nose
    76.          Naode: a small knot of lump of tissue
    77.          Obtund: dull or blunt
    78.          Obturation: obstruction
    79.          Odynacusis : acute pain on hearing any sound
    80.          Odynophagia: pain on swallowing
    81.          Odynophonia: pain while speaking
    82.          Olfactory: related to sense of smell
    83.          Ossicle: a small bone
    84.          Otalgia: earache
    85.          Otitis: inflammation of the ear
    86.          Otodynia: earache
    87.          Otolaryngology: study of the ear and larynx
    88.          Otopathy: any disease of the ear
    89.         Otorrhea : discharge from the ear
    90.          Otoscope: an instrument used for inspecting the eardrum
    91.          Palate: roof of the mouth
    92.          Periauricular : around the ear
    93.          Pharyngeal: related to the pharynx
    94.          Pharyngitis: inflammation of the pharynx
    95.          Pharyngoglossal: relating to the pharynx and the tongue
    96.          Pharyngoplegia: paralysis of muscles of the pharynx
    97.          Pharynx: throat
    98.          Pinna: auricle, external ear
    99.          Presbycusis: progressive loss of ability of hearing due to again
    100.          Purulent: containing pus
    101.          Rhinitis: inflammation of nasal mucous membranes
    102.          Rhinopathy : disease of the nose
    103.          Rhinoplasty : surgical repair of the nose   
    104.          Rhinorrhea: discharge from the nose or nasal passages
    105.          Salpingitis: inflammation of eusta­chian tube or fallopian tubes
    106.          Salpinx: auditory or eustachian tube; fallopian tubes
    107.          Septectomy: excision of septum, pan or whole
    108.          Septum: a wall partition between two cavities or two masses of soft tissue
    109.          Serosanguineous: discharge containing serum and blood
    110.          Shotty: rubbery type of feel to touch
    111.          Sinus: a passageway or hollow space in bone or other tissue
    112.          Sinusitis: inflammation of the sinus
    113.          Sinusoid: resembling sinus
    114.          Snuff: to inspire forcibly through the nose
    115.          Stapedectomy: excision of stapes
    116.          Stapes: smallest auditory ossicle; stir­rup
    117.          Strep: short form for streptococcus
    118.          Streptococcal: caused by streptococ­cus 
    119.          Tinnitus: noises in the ear, such as ringing and whistling
    120.          Trachea: windpipe
    121.          Tracheitis: inflammation of membrane lining the trachea
    122.          Tracheobronchial: related to the tra­chea and the bronchi
    123.          Tracheostomy: forming an opening into the trachea
    124.          Tragus: a small projection of carti­lage in front of external auditory meatus
    125.          Tympanectomy: excision of the tym­panic membrane
    126.          Tympanic: related to the tympanic membrane
    127.          Tympanoeustachian: related to tym­panic membrane and eustachian tube
    128.          Uvula: a conical fleshy projection from the middle of the soft palate in the mouth
    129.          Uvulitis: inflammation of the uvula 132, 1l\1.1iopalatopharyngoplasty: a surgical treatment in which unnecessary uvula and palatal tissue and the oropharyngeal tissue is resected for patients with sleep apnea
    130.          Vertigo: dizziness; a sensation of spin­ning motion
    131.          Vestibule: a small cavity or space at the entrance of the canal
    132.          Vestibulocochlear: related to vestibule and cochlea of the ear
    133.          Vibrissae: hair growing at the nares; nose hair
    134.          Xerostomia: Dryness of the mouth
     Combining Forms
     
    acous/o: hearing
    aden/o: gland
    audi/o: hearing
    myring/o: tympanic membrane
    nas/o: nose
    ot/o: ear
    pharyng/o: pharynx
    laryng/o: larynx
    rhin/o: nose
    salping/o: eustachian tube
    seler/o: hardening
    thyroid/o: thyroid
    tympan/o: tympanic membrane
     
    Suffix
     
    -ectomy: excision
    -itis: inflammation
    -logist: specialist in the study of
    -logy: study of
    -scope: instrument to view
    -stenosis: stricture
    -stomy: forming an opening
    -tomy: incision
     
    Prefix
     
    dys-: difficult
    a-: without
    hyper-: excessive
     
    IOL
    Intraocular lens.
    IOP
    Intraocular pressure.
    OD
    (Oculus dexter) right eye.
    OS
    (Oculus sinister) left eye.
    OU
    (Oculus uterque) each eye.
    PERRLA
    Pupils equally round and reactive to light and accommodation.
    VA
    Visual acuity.
    VF
    Visual field, field of vision.
    AD
    Auris dextra (right ear).
    AS
    Auris sinistra (left ear).
    AU
    Auris unitas (both ears).
    EENT
    Ear, eye, nose and throat.
    ENT
    Ear, nose, and throat.
    PE tube
    Pressure equalization tubes.
     
     
    All text of this article available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License (see Copyrights for details).
     

    Online MT Course
    Otorhinolaryngology



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  • Section I - Audio Files
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  • Quality Assessment Standards
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  • The 206 Bones in Human Body


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  • Section II - Abbrevation Audio Files
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  • Section X - Transcribed Documents


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